Homo neanderthalensis therefore means ‘Human from the Neander Valley’. The German word for valley is ‘Tal’ although in the 1800s it was spelt ‘Thal’. The word neanderthalensis is based on the location where the first major specimen was discovered in 1856 – the Neander Valley in Germany. Homo, is a Latin word meaning ‘human’ or ‘man’. Comparisons to other humans of this period are difficult due to lack of knowledge on variations within child populations. This interpretation was based on knee and leg proportions but as the head, pelvis and forearms are decidedly human it is more likely that the robustness is a climatic adaptation (see Tattersal and Schwartz). This specimen has been described by its discoverers (and particularly Eric Trinkhaus) as a Neanderthal-Hom o sapiens hybrid. Lagar Velho – a 24,000-year-old skeleton of a Homo sapiens boy discovered in 1998 in Abrigo do Lagar Velho, central western Portugal.It was deliberately buried but as no grave goods were found it is difficult to infer any ritualistic behaviour. This relatively complete skeleton belonged to an adult male. Kebara 2 – 60,000-year-old partial skeleton discovered in 1983 in Kebara cave, Israel.This is the ‘type specimen’ or official representative of this species. Neanderthal 1 – a 45,000-year-old skullcap discovered in 1856 in Feldhofer Grotto, Neander Valley, Germany.He survived for quite some time with these complaints, which indicates that these people cared for the sick and elderly. This male individual had lost most of his teeth and his skeleton showed evidence of major injuries and disease including a healed broken hip, and arthritis of the lower neck, back, hip and shoulders. La Chapelle-aux-Saints – a 50,000-year-old skull discovered in 1908 in La Chapelle-aux-Saints, France.More fossil evidence from Asia is needed to understand the significance of this specimen. This partial skull, dated to about 120,000 – 140,000 years old, shows remarkable similarities to European Neanderthals and its discovery in southern China suggests the possibility that Neanderthals travelled further east than once thought. (species uncertain) and discovered in Maba, China. Maba – a partial skull classifed as Homo sp.These individuals had less robust features than their European counterparts. Neanderthals probably migrated to the Middle East during times of harsh European winters. This individual was more than 180 centimetres tall and had the largest brain of any fossil human (1740 cubic centimetres).

Amud 1 – a 45,000-year-old skull discovered in1961 by Hisashi Suzuki in Amud, Israel.This skull of an elderly male has the features associated with ‘classic’ European Neanderthals. La Ferrassie 1 – a 50,000-year-old skull discovered in 1909 in La Ferrassie, France.It is probable that they used their teeth as a kind of vice to help them hold animal skins or other objects as they worked.

The front teeth of Neanderthals often show heavy wear, a characteristic that is even found in young Neanderthals. This shows that these characteristics were genetic and not developed during an individual’s lifetime. The distinctive features of Neanderthals are already apparent in this adolescent individual.

Le Moustier – a 45,000-year-old skull discovered in Le Moustier, France.

As a result, more is known about this human ancestor than about any other. These include babies, children and adults up to about 40 years of age. Since then, thousands of fossils representing the remains of many hundreds of Neanderthal individuals have been recovered from sites across Europe and the Middle East. The first Neanderthal fossil was found in 1829, but it was not recognised as a possible human ancestor until more fossils were discovered during the second half of the 19th century.

Vice tool has teeth